9 - When Soviet Tanks Stormed In

Hungary and Czechoslovakia were treated harshly throughout history

In addition to Poland, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania, on May 1 the European Union was joined by the Czech Republic, Slovakia (until 1993, one country under the name of Czechoslovakia), Hungary, Slovenia, Malta, and Cyprus. In the previous installment we told of the price paid by the first four countries for their desire of independence; in this one, we shall examine the events that led to the "Prague Spring" and to the Budapest insurrection, both cut short by Soviet tanks.

And spring brought freedom
Charles IV of Luxembourg, the humanist emperor, elected Prague to be the cultural as well as political capitol of his domains, by establishing there the Carolinum, the first university in Central Europe, still in existence today.
Rudolph II of Habsburg, the emperor who wanted the philosopher's stone that would turn any metal to gold, turned it into a luxurious, almost magical, city. There were not only the scores of alchemists, enlisted by the sovereign for his paranoid quest, but also one of the most ancient Jewish enclaves where the Kabbalah was jealously guarded, preserving the mystical thoughts orally passed on from father to son through the centuries.
In the Prague Ghetto, great Jewish legends and sagas that would later spread through Europe were shaped, such as the one about the mythical rabbi Low ben Bezabel, in front of whom even an emperor had to bow. Low ben Bezabel was not just a great rabbi, however: according to legend, he created the Golem as a defender of the Jewish community from persecution. The Golem was a clay giant that animated and wrought havoc whenever rabbi Low wrote EMET (truth) on its forehead, and dissolved when the rabbi erased the first letter, turning ENET into MET (dead).
Created as independent duchies, Bohemia and Moravia have always been the target of the expansionist appetites of neighbouring states. In the late sixth century they suffered the great Slavic invasion, and four centuries later the even more massive invasion of the Magyars. The duchies were inhabited by the Czechs and Slovaks, converted to Christianity in the nineth century by Saints Cyrill and Methodius, recently proclaimed by Pope John Paul II 'protectors of Europe'. Duke Boleslav II unified Bohemia and Moravia in 995, and they remained joined until they passed to the Habsburg crown in 1526. The Czech and Slovaks did not submit graciously, but the imperial army and intelligence managed to control any attempt at independence.
At the end of World War I, when the Austrian-Hungarian Empire collapsed, Prague's National Committee declared dissolved any bond with the Habsburg dynasty and proclaimed the birth of the state of Czechoslovakia, with Prague as capital.
Those years were far from easy: Social-Democrat governments alternated with others controlled by the landowners, with repeated political flip-flops.
The advent of Fascism and Nazism was met with approval by a part of Czechoslovakian society, but the government, rightly fearing them, dissolved the Fascist Party in 1932 and the Nazi Party in 1933. This provoked tensions with Germany that would last until the Munich Conference of 1938, which gave Hitler a free hand in occupying Czechoslovakia, creating the Protectorates of Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia.
In the same year the Resistance began: in November, a group of rebel students were killed, and when, a couple of years later, Czech patriots killed one of the most hated Nazi leaders, Reinhard Heyndrich, massacres and widespread repression ensued.
In 1943 the Soviet advance liberated the Slovak land from the Germans, and Edvard Benes formed a provisional government that in May 1945 took power in Prague. It was followed by a National Front cabinet (including the Communists, Benes' own National Socialists, the Populars, and the Democrats) that proceeded to reform agriculture and nationalize heavy industries, banks and transports. The elections for the Constitutional Assembly, in 1946, were won by the Communists, who grabbed power for good and immediately forcibly nationalized agriculture, industry, and commerce; later they joined the COMECON (the Common Market of the Soviet Bloc) and the Warsaw Pact (the military alliance binding the satellites to the Soviet Union). That was the so-called 'Prague Coup' that created the Czeckoslovakian Socialist Republic. However, strict obedience to Moscow was never accepted. Faced with the progressive Stalinization of the country, in 1948 Edvard Benes, who had been elected President, resigned in protest; other political leaders followed suit, disassociating themselves from the government. When Antonin Novotny, the new strongman of the régime, tried and diluted Krusciov's de-Stalinization, allowing only timid openings in the economy, the Communists themselves opposed him, and Novotny was replaced as Party leader with Alexander Dubcek, who accelerated the process for a renewal in the political life of the country.
Censorship was abolished, non-conformism was tolerated, Stalinism and its crimes were denounced, and Czechoslovakia began to move away from Moscow's rigid control: these were the most significant aspects of Dubcek's policies. He became the symbol of a new Socialism with a human face. The year was 1968: the Prague Spring had begun. It ended on the night on August 21, 1968, when Czechoslovakia was militarily occupied by Warsaw Pact troops. Like the suppression of Budapest over a decade earlier, the occupation of Prague was a lacerating event for Italian Communists, many of which left the Party.
Strengthened by widespread popular support, Czechoslova-kian leaders staged a desperate political battle that lasted until April of 1969, when Dubcek was forced to pass party leadership to pro-Soviet Gustav Husak, who normalized the country. A pall of gloom weighed on the country for about two decades, until Gorbachov's perestroika changed the wind in Moscow.
Opposition groups came out and staged public rallies, joining forces in the Charta 77 movement led by playwright Vàclav Havel, Alexander Dubcek, and the Catholic Church. The rallies grew huge, extending to the whole country in 1989, forcing the whole leadership of the Communist Party to resign.
Václav Havel was elected President, Liberal Marian Calfa was appointed as Prime Minister, and Alexander Dubcek became Chair of Parliament. Czechoslovakia abandoned the Socialist denomination and officially became the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic. It lasted until January 1, 1993, when Czechs and Slovaks decided to separate peacefully and in good accord, forming the Czech Republic (capital: Prague) and Slovakia (capital: Bratislava).
Still separated, but conjoined by a shared history of victories and defeats, these two countries now rejoin Europe, for centuries their legitimate home.

The incurrent revolution of Kadar the Communist
Hungary (capital: Budapest) is the most 'Italian' of Eastern European countries. Not only because it had been a Roman province (Pannonia), but also because in 1475 its mythical king
Matias Corvin married Beatrice of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand I, king of Naples. Beatrice brought to Obuda (as Budapest was called at the time) a large dowry and a solid military alliance, but also Neapolitan men of letters, artists, and bankers. These remained even after the death of Matias, Beatrice's subsequent marriage to Ladislas Jagellon, king of Bohemia, and her return to Naples when her second husband had the marriage annulled by the Pope.
That established an intense link between Hungary and Italy, which was never broken.
A saintly king, Stephen, was the founder of the Hungarian Catholic monarchy, around the Year 1000. His successors consolidated the kingdom and tried and expand it in the Balkans and especially in Dalmatia, looking for access to the sea. This inevitably led to conflict with Venice, which controlled Dalmatia; wars raged for many years, but in the end the Most Serene Republic came out on top, especially because the Hungarians had to face a greater danger coming from the south: Islam.
In the early 14th century, the Turks had begun to move through the Balkans towards the heart of Europe, and the first bulwark of Christianity standing in their path was Hungary. For centuries, battles without quarter raged between Hungarians and Turks, with the latter repulsed every time out of the national borders, especially by Mathias Corvinus who ensured a long period of tranquility to his country. After Mathias' death, the Turks renewed hostilities, routed the Hungarians and their allies at the battle of Mohács (1526), conquered Obuda and managed to keep it for a long time. They would have taken Vienna if they hadn't been stopped in 1683 by the King of Poland, Jan Sobieski, whose right-hand man was a young Italian prince, Eugene of Savoy, who would accomplish glorious deeds all over Europe, including the final expulsion of the Turks.
A marriage brought Hungary in the sphere of the Habsburg. Anna Jagellone, sister of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia, married in 1521 Ferdinand of Habsburg, who in 1556 was elected as Holy Roman Emperor. The Hungarians were always rebellious to the absolutism of the Habsburg, and repeatedly attempted to slip out of its grasp, but the elimination of the Turkish threat, obtained by Imperial armies led by Eugene of Savoy, induced the Hungarian Parliament of 1722 to accept the Pragmatic Sanction, which pragmatically sanctioned Habsburg rule over Hungary.
That rule would continue, in spite of insurrections, ferocious repressions, and reconciliations, until 1918, when the end of World War I decreed the dissolution of the Empire. On November 10 of that year, the Republic of Hungary was proclaimed. In March 1919, Socialists and Communists, allied under the leadership of Bela Kun, established the Hungarian Soviet Republic. It lasted four months, until a coup of nobility and military restored the monarchy, entrusting it to Admiral Miklós Horty as regent. He ruled the country with an iron fist, bringing Hungary closer to the dictatorships of Europe: he allied with Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany, adopted Anti-Semitic laws, favoured the creation of the Arrow Crosses and other Nazi movements.
When World War II was declared, he adhered to the Axis, but opportunistically entertained secret relationships with Britain.
The final years of the war brought Horty down. Faced with the Soviet advance to the Carpathians, Hitler overthrew Horty because he discovered his intention of pursuing a separate peace with the Allies, and entrusted power to the Arrow Crosses: that ignited a civil war between pro-German Hungarians and partisans who had formed a Communist partisan force that fought alongside the Soviets. When the Red Army liberated a part of Hungary, a provisional government led by Bela Miklós signed an alliance with Moscow. Inevitably, the Yalta agreements assigned the country to the Soviet sphere of influence. The regime installed in Budapest, under the leadership of Mátyás Rákosi, proceeded to a speedy 'construction of Socialism', but did so with brutality and countless expurgations. It had Cardinal Mindszenty, who inspired opposers of the regime, sentenced to life imprisonment, and Minister of Interior Rajk to hanging on trumped-up charges. At the same time, every economic activity was centralized, a strict censorship was imposed, and ties with Stalinist USSR were strengthened.
After Stalin's death in 1953, Imre Nagy became Prime Minister, and tried to bring Hungary on positions relatively autonomous from Moscow.
He was immediately demoted by Rákosi - who had kept the post of Secretary General of the Hungarian Workers' Socialist Party - who tried to reinstate Stalinism, regardless of Kruscev's denunciation of its crimes at the 20th Congress of the Soviet Union Communist Party. Hungarians never accepted this. Popular discontent, which had been simmering for some time, exploded in October 1956, soon becoming open insurrection. Trying to cool the situation down, Imre Nagy was recalled, but instead of attempting mediation he accelerated the process of detaching Hungary from Moscow, proposing that the country leave the Warsaw Pact and appealing to the UN for intervention.
That was too much for the Kremlin, and on November 4, 1956, the Red Army was sent in. It met obstinate resistance, and for days the streets of Budapest became a battlefield. The Soviet tanks prevailed, bloodily quashing the revolt. Nagy and Captain Pal Maleter, leader of the rebels, were tried and hanged, and a collaborationist government under Janos Kadar was installed.
Much like what would later happen with Prague, the occupation of Budapest caused a deep crisis of conscience among Italian Communists, leading many to leave the Party.
Kadar, however, was much more than a tool of Moscow. First he pacified the country, then, made stronger by Kruscev's esteem, he opened the way to collaboration with non-Communists (his winning slogan was "Who's not against me is with me"), he cut the cultural life some slack, launched the first economic liberalizations, and mended relations with the Holy See, which had deteriorated with Cardinal Mindszenty's sentence. In 1968, with the adoption of the New Economic Model, Hungary started on a path of reform that brought it ahead of everybody else in Eastern Europe as far as departing from the Stalinist model was concerned: company autonomy, price liberalization, reintroduction of profit, vibrant social life. Western pundits called Budapest "the happiest shack in the concentration camp". Ten years later, in 1978, Hungary was the first country of the Soviet Bloc to introduce private companies, which began to attract foreign capitals. In 1987 corporations and merchant banks were introduced. A bloodless revolution had taken place.
The year of radical change was 1989. The reformist protégés of Kadar carried it out: in January, the Party renounced its hegemonic role and legalized non-Communist political movements; in October it repudiated Communism and changed its name to Hungarian Socialist Party. At the same time, the borders with Austria were opened, allowing citizens of East Germany to flock to West Germany. The Berlin Wall began to fall in Budapest. On October 18, the new Constitution was approved: with it, Hungary rescinded any tie with its recent past, and was finally free to return to Europe, which its soul had never left.

Foreword
For two decades, from the 70s to the 90s, I travelled frequently in many Eastern European countries, but most often in Czechoslovakia and Hungary. I wanted to verify whether the gloomy pall imposed from Moscow had erased European culture and values from those great Western capitals. I found them both in Prague's and Budapest's streets, in political debates, speaking with common folks and opinion leaders, visiting bookstores and theatres, attending rallies. Surprisingly, I also found them in the actions of two people, Alexander Dubcek and Janos Kadar, who could have been expected to negate them.
Dubcek and Kadar were Communists, but over Russian-style Marxism-Leninism both chose European Socialism: humanitarian, democratic and reformist. They managed to discriminate between the revolutionary impatience and the real needs of the working class, without imposing their hegemony. It was natural for them, when called upon to govern their respective countries, to turn to the values proposed for centuries by European thinkers like Saint-Simon, Proudhon, Turati, who, as Bakunin wrote, "understood and felt liberty way better than Marx did". Dubcek and Kadar understood and felt it too: that's why their countries never forgot them.
When they died, several commentators remarked that "only Communists could tear down Communism". That was not true. Communism, the negation of individuality, could only be torn down by European Socialism, which never negated it. Precisely for this, it survived the demise of all the totalitarianisms that plagued the 20th century.


For travelers

The historic downtown of Prague (Czech Republic) has been declared 'cultural and scientific heritage of the world'. Just a glance from the Petrin Tower, a faithful copy of Paris' Eiffel Tower, is enough to understand why it's been called "the city of 100 golden towers".
Nobody should miss a stroll across Charles Bridge, among statues of saints and kings, peddlers of souvenirs and street portraitists. By crossing the bridge, one can reach the Castle, residence of the Habsburg emperors. Close to the Castle, there are the puppenhausen, literally "doll's houses": Emperor Rudolph II had them built to accommodate the alchemists that were researching the Philosopher's Stone for him.
City Hall is famous for an astronomic clock that marks time backwards. The city has many famous cafés: Lavka, at one end of Charles Bridge; Savoy, in the Art Nouveau heart of the city; and U Zelenejo Caje.
Bratislava (Slovakia), unlike Prague and Budapest, is not swarmed by tourists, as it has little to entice them. However, the Roman Castle on the Danube deserves a visit: it marked the border between "civilization" and "barbarians". Lovers of modern horrors can visit the Municipal Museum, hosted at Appony Palace: the building was used first by the SS and then by the KGB, which set up torture chambers in it. Art lovers have a more relaxing visit: the Slovak Museum and National Gallery display the country's most important collections of ancient art.
Budapest (Hungary) is called "Paris of the East", and rightly so: the elegance of its architecture, stores, theatres, and people all confirm it. At the end of World War II it was a huge pile of rubble, and its six bridges across the Danube, linking Buda and Pest, were nowhere in sight. Today, everything's back, even more beautiful than before.
A visit to the Fishermen's Rampart is a must, up in the Old Town, overlooking the whole city and the Danube that runs across it. Also not to be missed is the Café Gerbeaud, a luxurious 19th century pastry shop. Hungarians love to spend time sitting at its small tables, reading and chatting. Two hundred metres away, on Vaci Utca (Vac Road), Café Anna is a vantage point for watching the night life. Also unavoidable is the Art Nouveau spa at the Gellert Hotel, the mythical stop of the Orient Express.
An 'alternative' visit can be paid to the Park of Statues, an open air museum where the statues of the Communist era taken from the various city squares have been brought together. Finally, we recommend a visit to Pinter Antik Diszkont, a huge antique store with an ample selection of 18th-century furniture.

Publication Date: 2004-08-22
Story Location: http://tandemnews.com/viewstory.php?storyid=4326